Word Classes and Pragmatics

This chapter introduces the interaction between word classes and pragmatic functions in Tao (Yami), advocating a unified view of grammar, semantics, and pragmatics. Unlike Indo-European languages, Tao relies more on derivational morphology and syntactic position than fixed lexical classes.

I. Flexibility of Word Classes and Pre-Categorical Roots

Tao word classes are divided into open classes and closed classes, based on their membership and functional behavior.

1. Principles and Challenges of Word Classification

Classification relies on two linguistic types of evidence:

• Syntagmatic evidence: how words combine with other elements.
• Paradigmatic evidence: what affixes a word root accepts.

Because Tao has many pre-categorical roots, a root has no inherent word class. Its class is determined only after affixation or by its syntactic role.

2. Open Classes

• Nouns: objects, locations, times, events.
• Verbs: actions, states, emotions; carry focus and TAM morphology.

3. Closed Classes

Closed class items are limited in number and cannot expand:

• Pronouns (ko, ka, yaken, tamow)
• Case Markers (o, si, no, ni, do, ji, so)
• Auxiliary Verbs (ji, ya, to)
• Conjunctions (a, no, si)
• Particles (na, rana, pa)
• Interjections (ayoy, alang, ananay, awalay)

4. No “Adjective” Class

Tao does not have a separate adjective class. All descriptive words expressing qualities, appearance, emotions, or properties are categorized as stative verbs.

• Most carry the prefix ma-: masaray “happy”, mabsoy “full”, ma-lavang “white”
• Semantically similar to adjectives, but grammatically verbs.

II. Verbs: Focus, TAM, and Imperatives

• The Focus System
  Verbs take obligatory focus affixes that identify the Nominative NP:
  • AF: m- / mi- / ma- / maN-
  • PF: -en
  • LF: -an
  • IF: i-
• Inceptive Aspect
  Combination of ya (“this, now”) + na / rana (“already”) signals beginning or impending action.
• Imperatives
  Affirmative = verb root. Negative = jya + verb root.

III. Auxiliary Verbs and Particles

Auxiliaries and particles express tense, aspect, negation, modality, and emotional attitude.

IV. Interjections

Interjections express emotional, cognitive, or physical reactions and are a strong feature of Yami pragmatics.

• Surprise/praise: cigyan, waranay
• Disapproval: cig, kazisaw
• Pain: ananay, ayayaya
• Challenge/question: tang ang
• Acknowledgment: noon, ning

V. Case Markers and Information Structure

Case markers do not merely assign grammatical roles—they also encode information status (new vs. given).

• Oblique so: marks new/indefinite information.
  ya myan so mojis? — “Is there any rice?”
• Nominative o / si: marks old/given information or the topic.
  jyabo o mojis. — “The rice is gone.”

VI. The ka- Attitude Structure

The prefix ka- is one of the most pragmatically powerful markers in Tao. It conveys attitudes such as blame, complaint, frustration, curse, or astonishment.

• Surprise/complaint: kasingasingat na!
• Blame: kapalavi mo sya? — “Who told you to make him cry?”
• Cursing/wishing: kazakat ka!, kavazat!

VII. Summary: Grammar–Semantics–Pragmatics Integration

The Tao lexical and pragmatic system shows how a verb-centered grammar intertwines morphology, case marking, and discourse functions. Rather than fixed word classes, Tao relies on affixation, focus marking, and pragmatic context to determine meaning.

• Roots are pre-categorical and gain class through morphology and syntax.
• Open classes (N, V) contrast with closed classes (Case, Pronouns, Auxiliaries, Particles).
• Stative verbs substitute for adjectives.
• Auxiliaries and particles strongly shape TAM and social interaction.
• Interjections serve as emotional and cultural markers.
• ka- constructions encode judgment, attitude, and evaluation.

Together, these mechanisms make Tao a system where word class, meaning, and pragmatic force are inseparable, forming a highly expressive and culturally rich grammar.